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Make pcr relative forward references better able to select 8 bit offsets
author William Astle <lost@l-w.ca>
date Wed, 28 Feb 2018 23:00:59 -0700
parents cad5937314cb
children a71206ed966c
line wrap: on
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><DIV
CLASS="BOOK"
><A
NAME="AEN1"
></A
><DIV
CLASS="TITLEPAGE"
><H1
CLASS="TITLE"
><A
NAME="AEN2"
>LW Tool Chain</A
></H1
><H3
CLASS="AUTHOR"
><A
NAME="AEN4"
></A
>William Astle</H3
><H3
CLASS="AUTHOR"
><A
NAME="AEN7"
></A
>LWTools Contributors </H3
><P
CLASS="COPYRIGHT"
>Copyright &copy; 2009-2015 William Astle and LWTools contributors</P
><HR></DIV
><DIV
CLASS="TOC"
><DL
><DT
><B
>Table of Contents</B
></DT
><DT
>1. <A
HREF="#AEN13"
>Introduction</A
></DT
><DD
><DL
><DT
>1.1. <A
HREF="#AEN16"
>History</A
></DT
></DL
></DD
><DT
>2. <A
HREF="#AEN21"
>Output Formats</A
></DT
><DD
><DL
><DT
>2.1. <A
HREF="#AEN24"
>Raw Binaries</A
></DT
><DT
>2.2. <A
HREF="#AEN27"
>DECB Binaries</A
></DT
><DT
>2.3. <A
HREF="#AEN32"
>ASCII Hexadecimal</A
></DT
><DT
>2.4. <A
HREF="#AEN36"
>Motorola S-Record</A
></DT
><DT
>2.5. <A
HREF="#AEN41"
>Intel Hex</A
></DT
><DT
>2.6. <A
HREF="#AEN46"
>OS9 Modules</A
></DT
><DT
>2.7. <A
HREF="#AEN54"
>Object Files</A
></DT
></DL
></DD
><DT
>3. <A
HREF="#AEN62"
>LWASM</A
></DT
><DD
><DL
><DT
>3.1. <A
HREF="#AEN65"
>Command Line Options</A
></DT
><DT
>3.2. <A
HREF="#AEN218"
>Dialects</A
></DT
><DT
>3.3. <A
HREF="#AEN227"
>Source Format</A
></DT
><DT
>3.4. <A
HREF="#AEN237"
>Symbols</A
></DT
><DT
>3.5. <A
HREF="#AEN242"
>Numbers and Expressions</A
></DT
><DT
>3.6. <A
HREF="#AEN250"
>Assembler Directives</A
></DT
><DD
><DL
><DT
>3.6.1. <A
HREF="#AEN253"
>Data Directives</A
></DT
><DT
>3.6.2. <A
HREF="#AEN364"
>Address Definition</A
></DT
><DT
>3.6.3. <A
HREF="#AEN415"
>Conditional Assembly</A
></DT
><DT
>3.6.4. <A
HREF="#AEN486"
>OS9 Target Directives</A
></DT
><DT
>3.6.5. <A
HREF="#AEN511"
>Miscelaneous Directives</A
></DT
></DL
></DD
><DT
>3.7. <A
HREF="#AEN551"
>Macros</A
></DT
><DT
>3.8. <A
HREF="#AEN574"
>Structures</A
></DT
><DT
>3.9. <A
HREF="#AEN595"
>Object Files and Sections</A
></DT
><DT
>3.10. <A
HREF="#AEN659"
>Assembler Modes and Pragmas</A
></DT
><DT
>3.11. <A
HREF="#CONVINST"
>Convenience Instructions</A
></DT
><DT
>3.12. <A
HREF="#AEN805"
>Cycle Counts</A
></DT
></DL
></DD
><DT
>4. <A
HREF="#AEN811"
>LWLINK</A
></DT
><DD
><DL
><DT
>4.1. <A
HREF="#AEN814"
>Command Line Options</A
></DT
><DT
>4.2. <A
HREF="#AEN911"
>Linker Operation</A
></DT
><DT
>4.3. <A
HREF="#AEN925"
>Linking Scripts</A
></DT
><DT
>4.4. <A
HREF="#AEN991"
>Format Specific Linking Notes</A
></DT
><DD
><DL
><DT
>4.4.1. <A
HREF="#AEN994"
>OS9 Modules</A
></DT
></DL
></DD
></DL
></DD
><DT
>5. <A
HREF="#AEN1006"
>Libraries and LWAR</A
></DT
><DD
><DL
><DT
>5.1. <A
HREF="#AEN1010"
>Command Line Options</A
></DT
></DL
></DD
><DT
>6. <A
HREF="#OBJCHAP"
>Object Files</A
></DT
></DL
></DIV
><DIV
CLASS="LOT"
><DL
CLASS="LOT"
><DT
><B
>List of Tables</B
></DT
><DT
>6-1. <A
HREF="#AEN1093"
>Object File Term Types</A
></DT
><DT
>6-2. <A
HREF="#AEN1123"
>Object File Operator Numbers</A
></DT
></DL
></DIV
><DIV
CLASS="CHAPTER"
><HR><H1
><A
NAME="AEN13"
></A
>Chapter 1. Introduction</H1
><P
>The LW tool chain provides utilities for building binaries for MC6809 and
HD6309 CPUs. The tool chain includes a cross-assembler and a cross-linker
which support several styles of output.</P
><DIV
CLASS="SECTION"
><HR><H2
CLASS="SECTION"
><A
NAME="AEN16"
>1.1. History</A
></H2
><P
>For a long time, I have had an interest in creating an operating system for
the Coco3. I finally started working on that project around the beginning of
2006. I had a number of assemblers I could choose from. Eventually, I settled
on one and started tinkering. After a while, I realized that assembler was not
going to be sufficient due to lack of macros and issues with forward references.
Then I tried another which handled forward references correctly but still did
not support macros. I looked around at other assemblers and they all lacked
one feature or another that I really wanted for creating my operating system.</P
><P
>The solution seemed clear at that point. I am a fair programmer so I figured
I could write an assembler that would do everything I wanted an assembler to
do. Thus the LWASM probject was born. After more than two years of on and off
work, version 1.0 of LWASM was released in October of 2008.</P
><P
>As the aforementioned operating system project progressed further, it became
clear that while assembling the whole project through a single file was doable,
it was not practical. When I found myself playing some fancy games with macros
in a bid to simulate sections, I realized I needed a means of assembling
source files separately and linking them later. This spawned a major development
effort to add an object file support to LWASM. It also spawned the LWLINK
project to provide a means to actually link the files.</P
></DIV
></DIV
><DIV
CLASS="CHAPTER"
><HR><H1
><A
NAME="AEN21"
></A
>Chapter 2. Output Formats</H1
><P
>The LW tool chain supports multiple output formats. Each format has its
advantages and disadvantages. Each format is described below.</P
><DIV
CLASS="SECTION"
><HR><H2
CLASS="SECTION"
><A
NAME="AEN24"
>2.1. Raw Binaries</A
></H2
><P
>A raw binary is simply a string of bytes. There are no headers or other
niceties. Both LWLINK and LWASM support generating raw binaries. ORG directives
in the source code only serve to set the addresses that will be used for
symbols but otherwise have no direct impact on the resulting binary.</P
></DIV
><DIV
CLASS="SECTION"
><HR><H2
CLASS="SECTION"
><A
NAME="AEN27"
>2.2. DECB Binaries</A
></H2
><P
>A DECB binary is compatible with the LOADM command in Disk Extended
Color Basic on the CoCo. They are also compatible with CLOADM from Extended
Color Basic. These binaries include the load address of the binary as well
as encoding an execution address. These binaries may contain multiple loadable
sections, each of which has its own load address.</P
><P
>Each binary starts with a preamble. Each preamble is five bytes long. The
first byte is zero. The next two bytes specify the number of bytes to load
and the last two bytes specify the address to load the bytes at. Then, a
string of bytes follows. After this string of bytes, there may be another
preamble or a postamble. A postamble is also five bytes in length. The first
byte of the postamble is $FF, the next two are zero, and the last two are
the execution address for the binary.</P
><P
>Both LWASM and LWLINK can output this format.</P
></DIV
><DIV
CLASS="SECTION"
><HR><H2
CLASS="SECTION"
><A
NAME="AEN32"
>2.3. ASCII Hexadecimal</A
></H2
><P
>This human-readable ASCII hexadecimal format consists of CR+LF terminated 
lines of ASCII text. Each line has the following structure: a zero-padded 
four-digit ASCII hex address, a colon separator, and one or more zero-padded
two-digit hex values separated by commas. ASCII Hexadecimal format favors 
paragraph-aligned addresses (i.e. a least significant address nybble value
of zero). During output, the number of hex values on each line are adjusted
to align the address of the next line on a paragraph boundary. The sequence 
of addresses in the ASCII Hexadecimal file directly follows that of the source
file; multiple ORG directives in the source code may result in out-of-sequence
addresses in the ASCII Hexadecimal output.</P
><P
>LWASM can output this format since version 4.10.</P
></DIV
><DIV
CLASS="SECTION"
><HR><H2
CLASS="SECTION"
><A
NAME="AEN36"
>2.4. Motorola S-Record</A
></H2
><P
>This ASCII format consists of a series of CR+LF terminated "records" of ASCII
text. Each record has the following structure: a start-of-record character
"S", an ASCII record type digit (0-9), a two-digit ASCII hex byte count, a 
four-digit ASCII hex address, an optional sequence of two-digit ASCII hex data
values, and a two-digit ASCII hex checksum. The LW tool chain issues only S0, 
S1, S5 and S9 record types. S1 records are limited to maximum of 16 data bytes
in length, and  paragraph alignment of addresses is favored. The address
sequence of the S-Records directly follows that of the source file; multiple
ORG directives in the source code may result in out-of-sequence addresses in
the S-Record output. </P
><P
>Motorola S-Record format is a standard ASCII format accepted by most memory
device programming equipment. It is particularly useful when the assembled 
code output is destined to reside within an EPROM or Flash memory device,
for example.</P
><P
>LWASM can output this format since version 4.10. LWLINK can output this format
since version 4.11.</P
></DIV
><DIV
CLASS="SECTION"
><HR><H2
CLASS="SECTION"
><A
NAME="AEN41"
>2.5. Intel Hex</A
></H2
><P
>This ASCII format consists of a series of CR+LF terminated "records" of ASCII
text. Each record has the following structure: a start-of-record character
":", a two-digit ASCII hex byte count, a four-digit ASCII hex address, a two-
digit ASCII hex record type, an optional sequence of two-digit ASCII hex data 
values, and a two-digit ASCII hex checksum. The LW tool chain issues only 00, 
and 01 Intel Hex record types. Data records are limited to maximum of 16 
data bytes in length, and paragraph alignment of addresses is favored. The 
address sequence of the Intel hex records directly follows that of the source 
file; multiple ORG directives in the source code may result in out-of-sequence 
addresses in the Intel Hex output. </P
><P
>Intel Hex format is the other standard ASCII format accepted by most memory 
device programming equipment, it and the Motorola S-Record format are used for
similar purposes.</P
><P
>LWASM can output this format since version 4.10.</P
></DIV
><DIV
CLASS="SECTION"
><HR><H2
CLASS="SECTION"
><A
NAME="AEN46"
>2.6. OS9 Modules</A
></H2
><P
>&#13;Since version 2.5, LWASM is able to generate OS9 modules. The syntax is
basically the same as for other assemblers.  A module starts with the MOD
directive and ends with the EMOD directive.  The OS9 directive is provided
as a shortcut for writing system calls.&#13;</P
><P
>&#13;LWASM does NOT provide an OS9Defs file. You must provide your own. Also note
that the common practice of using "ifp1" around the inclusion of the OS9Defs
file is discouraged as it is pointless and can lead to unintentional
problems and phasing errors.  Because LWASM reads each file exactly once,
there is no benefit to restricting the inclusion to the first assembly pass.&#13;</P
><P
>&#13;As of version 4.5, LWASM also implements the standard data/code address
streams for OS9 modules.  That means that between MOD and EMOD, any RMB,
RMD, RMQ, or equivalent directives will move the data address ahead and
leave the code address unmodified.  Outside of an actual module, both the
code and data addresses are moved ahead equally.  That last bit is critical
to understand because it means any directives that follow an EMOD directive
may have different results than other assemblers.&#13;</P
><P
>&#13;Additionally, within a module body, the ORG directive sets only the data
address, not the code address. However, outside a module body, ORG sets both
addresses.&#13;</P
><P
>Both code and data addresses are reset to 0 by the MOD directive.</P
><P
>&#13;As of version 4.5, LWLINK also supports creation of OS9 modules.&#13;</P
></DIV
><DIV
CLASS="SECTION"
><HR><H2
CLASS="SECTION"
><A
NAME="AEN54"
>2.7. Object Files</A
></H2
><P
>LWASM supports generating a proprietary object file format which is
described in <A
HREF="#OBJCHAP"
>Chapter 6</A
>. LWLINK is then used to link these
object files into a final binary in any of LWLINK's supported binary
formats.</P
><P
>Object files also support the concept of sections which are not valid
for other output types. This allows related code from each object file
linked to be collapsed together in the final binary.</P
><P
>Object files are very flexible in that they allow references that are not
known at assembly time to be resolved at link time.  However, because the
addresses of such references are not known at assembly time, there is no way
for the assembler to deduce that an eight bit addressing mode is possible. 
That means the assember will default to using sixteen bit addressing
whenever an external or cross-section reference is used.</P
><P
>As of LWASM 2.4, it is possible to force direct page addressing for an
external reference.  Care must be taken to ensure the resulting addresses
are really in the direct page since the linker does not know what the direct
page is supposed to be and does not emit errors for byte overflows.</P
><P
>It is also possible to use external references in an eight bit immediate
mode instruction.  In this case, only the low order eight bits will be used. 
Again, no byte overflows will be flagged.</P
></DIV
></DIV
><DIV
CLASS="CHAPTER"
><HR><H1
><A
NAME="AEN62"
></A
>Chapter 3. LWASM</H1
><P
>The LWTOOLS assembler is called LWASM. This chapter documents the various
features of the assembler. It is not, however, a tutorial on 6x09 assembly
language programming.</P
><DIV
CLASS="SECTION"
><HR><H2
CLASS="SECTION"
><A
NAME="AEN65"
>3.1. Command Line Options</A
></H2
><P
>The binary for LWASM is called "lwasm". Note that the binary is in lower
case. lwasm takes the following command line arguments.</P
><P
></P
><DIV
CLASS="VARIABLELIST"
><DL
><DT
><CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>--6309</CODE
>, <CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>-3</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>This will cause the assembler to accept the additional instructions available
on the 6309 processor. This is the default mode; this option is provided for
completeness and to override preset command arguments.</P
><P
>This option is the same as if the first line of the source code is "PRAGMA 6309".</P
></DD
><DT
><CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>--6800compat</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>This is equivalent to <CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>--pragma=6800compat</CODE
>.</P
><P
>This will enable recognition of 6800 compatibility instructions.</P
></DD
><DT
><CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>--6809</CODE
>, <CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>-9</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>This will cause the assembler to reject instructions that are only available
on the 6309 processor. This actually has the effect of starting the assembler
as though the first line of the source is "PRAGMA 6809".</P
></DD
><DT
><CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>--decb</CODE
>, <CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>-b</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>Select the DECB output format target. Equivalent to <CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>--format=decb</CODE
>.</P
><P
>While this is the default output format currently, it is not safe to rely
on that fact. Future versions may have different defaults. It is also trivial
to modify the source code to change the default. Thus, it is recommended to specify
this option if you need DECB output.</P
></DD
><DT
><CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>--format=type</CODE
>, <CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>-f type</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>Select the output format. Valid values are <CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>obj</CODE
> for the
object file target, <CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>decb</CODE
> for the DECB LOADM format,
<CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>os9</CODE
> for creating OS9 modules, <CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>raw</CODE
> for
a raw binary, <CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>hex</CODE
> for ASCII hexadecminal format, 
<CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>srec</CODE
> for Motorola S-Record format, and <CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>ihex</CODE
>
 for Intel Hex format.</P
></DD
><DT
><CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>--list[=file]</CODE
>, <CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>-l[file]</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>Cause LWASM to generate a listing. If <CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>file</CODE
> is specified,
the listing will go to that file. Otherwise it will go to the standard output
stream. By default, no listing is generated. Unless <CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>--symbols</CODE
>
is specified, the list will not include the symbol table.</P
></DD
><DT
><CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>--symbols</CODE
>, <CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>-s</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>Causes LWASM to generate a list of symbols when generating a listing.
It has no effect unless a listing is being generated.</P
></DD
><DT
><CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>--symbols-nolocals</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>Behaves just like <CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>--symbols</CODE
> but with local labels omitted.</P
></DD
><DT
><CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>--map=FILE</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>&#13;This option generates a map file which can be used by debuggers and monitors to provide symbol information. A map file may be created independent of a listing file. (Patches are pending for MAME and exec09.)&#13;</P
></DD
><DT
><CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>--obj</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>Select the proprietary object file format as the output target.</P
></DD
><DT
><CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>--output=FILE</CODE
>, <CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>-o FILE</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>This option specifies the name of the output file. If not specified, the
default is <CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>a.out</CODE
>.</P
></DD
><DT
><CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>--pragma=pragma</CODE
>, <CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>-p pragma</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>Specify assembler pragmas. Multiple pragmas are separated by commas. The
pragmas accepted are the same as for the PRAGMA assembler directive described
below.</P
></DD
><DT
><CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>--raw</CODE
>, <CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>-r</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>Select raw binary as the output target.</P
></DD
><DT
><CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>--includedir=path</CODE
>, <CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>-I path</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>Add <CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>path</CODE
> to the end of the include path.</P
></DD
><DT
><CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>--define=SYM[=VAL]</CODE
>, <CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>-D SYM[=VAL]</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>Pre-defines the symbol SYM as either the specified VAL. If VAL is omitted,
the symbol is defined as 1.  The symbol will be defined as though it were
defined using the SET directive in the assembly source.  That means it can
be overridden by a SET directive within the source code.  Attempting to
redefine SYM using EQU will result in a multiply defined symbol error.</P
></DD
><DT
><CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>-t WIDTH</CODE
>, <CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>--tabs=WIDTH</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>Specifies the handling of tabs in listing files. <CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>--tabs=0</CODE
>
disables tab expansion. <CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>--tabs=8</CODE
> is the default setting.</P
></DD
><DT
><CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>--help</CODE
>, <CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>-?</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>Present a help screen describing the command line options.</P
></DD
><DT
><CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>--usage</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>Provide a summary of the command line options.</P
></DD
><DT
><CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>--version</CODE
>, <CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>-V</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>Display the software version.</P
></DD
><DT
><CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>--debug</CODE
>, <CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>-d</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>Increase the debugging level. Only really useful to people hacking on the
LWASM source code itself.</P
></DD
></DL
></DIV
></DIV
><DIV
CLASS="SECTION"
><HR><H2
CLASS="SECTION"
><A
NAME="AEN218"
>3.2. Dialects</A
></H2
><P
> LWASM supports all documented MC6809 instructions as defined by
Motorola.  By default, this does not include any MC6800 compatibility
instructions.  As of LWASM 4.11, those compatibility instructions can be
enabled using the <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>--6800compat</CODE
> option or the
<CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>6800compat</CODE
> pragma.  It also supports all known HD6309
instructions.  While there is general agreement on the pneumonics for most
of the 6309 instructions, there is some variance with the block transfer
instructions.  TFM for all four variations seems to have gained the most
traction and, thus, this is the form that is recommended for LWASM. 
However, it also supports COPY, COPY-, IMP, EXP, TFRP, TFRM, TFRS, and TFRR. 
It further adds COPY+ as a synomym for COPY, IMPLODE for IMP, and EXPAND for
EXP.  </P
><P
>By default, LWASM accepts 6309 instructions. However, using the
<CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>--6809</CODE
> parameter, you can cause it to throw errors on
6309 instructions instead.</P
><P
>The standard addressing mode specifiers are supported. These are the
hash sign ("#") for immediate mode, the less than sign ("&lt;") for forced
eight bit modes, and the greater than sign ("&gt;") for forced sixteen bit modes.</P
><P
>Additionally, LWASM supports using the asterisk ("*") to indicate
base page addressing. This should not be used in hand-written source code,
however, because it is non-standard and may or may not be present in future
versions of LWASM.</P
></DIV
><DIV
CLASS="SECTION"
><HR><H2
CLASS="SECTION"
><A
NAME="AEN227"
>3.3. Source Format</A
></H2
><P
>LWASM accepts plain text files in a relatively free form. It can handle
lines terminated with CR, LF, CRLF, or LFCR which means it should be able
to assemble files on any platform on which it compiles.</P
><P
>Each line may start with a symbol. If a symbol is present, there must not
be any whitespace preceding it. It is legal for a line to contain nothing
but a symbol.</P
><P
>The op code is separated from the symbol by whitespace. If there is
no symbol, there must be at least one white space character preceding it.
If applicable, the operand follows separated by whitespace. Following the
opcode and operand is an optional comment.</P
><P
> It is important to note that operands cannot contain any whitespace
except in the case of delimited strings.  This is because the first
whitespace character will be interpreted as the separator between the
operand column and the comment.  This behaviour is required for approximate
source compatibility with other 6x09 assemblers.  </P
><P
>A comment can also be introduced with a * or a ;. The comment character is
optional for end of statement comments. However, if a symbol is the only
thing present on the line other than the comment, the comment character is
mandatory to prevent the assembler from interpreting the comment as an opcode.</P
><P
>For compatibility with the output generated by some C preprocessors, LWASM
will also ignore lines that begin with a #. This should not be used as a general
comment character, however.</P
><P
>The opcode is not treated case sensitively. Neither are register names in
the operand fields. Symbols, however, are case sensitive.</P
><P
> As of version 2.6, LWASM supports files with line numbers.  If line
numbers are present, the line must start with a digit.  The line number
itself must consist only of digits.  The line number must then be followed
by either the end of the line or exactly one white space character.  After
that white space character, the lines are interpreted exactly as above. </P
></DIV
><DIV
CLASS="SECTION"
><HR><H2
CLASS="SECTION"
><A
NAME="AEN237"
>3.4. Symbols</A
></H2
><P
>Symbols have no length restriction. They may contain letters, numbers, dots,
dollar signs, and underscores. They must start with a letter, dot, or
underscore.</P
><P
>LWASM also supports the concept of a local symbol. A local symbol is one
which contains either a "?" or a "@", which can appear anywhere in the symbol.
The scope of a local symbol is determined by a number of factors. First,
each included file gets its own local symbol scope. A blank line will also
be considered a local scope barrier. Macros each have their own local symbol
scope as well (which has a side effect that you cannot use a local symbol
as an argument to a macro). There are other factors as well. In general,
a local symbol is restricted to the block of code it is defined within.</P
><P
>By default, unless assembling to the os9 target, a "$" in the symbol will
also make it local.  This can be controlled by the "dollarlocal" and
"nodollarlocal" pragmas.  In the absence of a pragma to the contrary, for
the os9 target, a "$" in the symbol will not make it considered local while
for all other targets it will.</P
></DIV
><DIV
CLASS="SECTION"
><HR><H2
CLASS="SECTION"
><A
NAME="AEN242"
>3.5. Numbers and Expressions</A
></H2
><P
>&#13;Numbers can be expressed in binary, octal, decimal, or hexadecimal. Binary
numbers may be prefixed with a "%" symbol or suffixed with a "b" or "B".
Octal numbers may be prefixed with "@" or suffixed with "Q", "q", "O", or
"o". Hexadecimal numbers may be prefixed with "$", "0x" or "0X", or suffixed
with "H". No prefix or suffix is required for decimal numbers but they can
be prefixed with "&amp;" if desired. Any constant which begins with a letter
must be expressed with the correct prefix base identifier or be prefixed
with a 0. Thus hexadecimal FF would have to be written either 0FFH or $FF.
Numbers are not case sensitive.&#13;</P
><P
> A symbol may appear at any point where a number is acceptable. The
special symbol "*" can be used to represent the starting address of the
current source line within expressions. </P
><P
>The ASCII value of a character can be included by prefixing it with a
single quote ('). The ASCII values of two characters can be included by
prefixing the characters with a quote (").</P
><P
>&#13;LWASM supports the following basic binary operators: +, -, *, /, and %. 
These represent addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and
modulus.  It also supports unary negation and unary 1's complement (- and ^
respectively).  It is also possible to use ~ for the unary 1's complement
operator.  For completeness, a unary positive (+) is supported though it is
a no-op.  LWASM also supports using |, &#38;, and ^ for bitwise or, bitwise and,
and bitwise exclusive or respectively.&#13;</P
><P
>&#13;Operator precedence follows the usual rules. Multiplication, division, and
modulus take precedence over addition and subtraction.  Unary operators take
precedence over binary operators.  Bitwise operators are lower precdence
than addition and subtraction.  To force a specific order of evaluation,
parentheses can be used in the usual manner.&#13;</P
><P
>&#13;As of LWASM 2.5, the operators &#38;&#38; and || are recognized for boolean and and
boolean or respectively.  They will return either 0 or 1 (false or true). 
They have the lowest precedence of all the binary operators.&#13;</P
></DIV
><DIV
CLASS="SECTION"
><HR><H2
CLASS="SECTION"
><A
NAME="AEN250"
>3.6. Assembler Directives</A
></H2
><P
>Various directives can be used to control the behaviour of the
assembler or to include non-code/data in the resulting output. Those directives
that are not described in detail in other sections of this document are
described below.</P
><DIV
CLASS="SECTION"
><HR><H3
CLASS="SECTION"
><A
NAME="AEN253"
>3.6.1. Data Directives</A
></H3
><P
></P
><DIV
CLASS="VARIABLELIST"
><DL
><DT
>FCB <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>expr[,...]</CODE
>, .DB <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>expr[,...]</CODE
>, .BYTE <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>expr[,...]</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>Include one or more constant bytes (separated by commas) in the output.</P
></DD
><DT
>FDB <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>expr[,...]</CODE
>, .DW <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>expr[,...]</CODE
>, .WORD <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>expr[,...]</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>Include one or more words (separated by commas) in the output.</P
></DD
><DT
>FQB <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>expr[,...]</CODE
>, .QUAD <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>expr[,...]</CODE
>, .4BYTE <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>expr[,...]</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>Include one or more double words (separated by commas) in the output.</P
></DD
><DT
>FCC <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>string</CODE
>, .ASCII <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>string</CODE
>, .STR <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>string</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>Include a string of text in the output. The first character of the operand
is the delimiter which must appear as the last character and cannot appear
within the string. The string is included with no modifications&#62;</P
></DD
><DT
>FCN <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>string</CODE
>, .ASCIZ <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>string</CODE
>, .STRZ <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>string</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>Include a NUL terminated string of text in the output. The first character of
the operand is the delimiter which must appear as the last character and
cannot appear within the string. A NUL byte is automatically appended to
the string.</P
></DD
><DT
>FCS <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>string</CODE
>, .ASCIS <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>string</CODE
>, .STRS <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>string</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>Include a string of text in the output with bit 7 of the final byte set. The
first character of the operand is the delimiter which must appear as the last
character and cannot appear within the string.</P
></DD
><DT
>ZMB <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>expr</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>Include a number of NUL bytes in the output. The number must be fully resolvable
during pass 1 of assembly so no forward or external references are permitted.</P
></DD
><DT
>ZMD <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>expr</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>Include a number of zero words in the output. The number must be fully
resolvable during pass 1 of assembly so no forward or external references are
permitted.</P
></DD
><DT
>ZMQ <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>expr<CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
></CODE
></CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>Include a number of zero double-words in the output. The number must be fully
resolvable during pass 1 of assembly so no forward or external references are
permitted.</P
></DD
><DT
>RMB <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>expr</CODE
>, .BLKB <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>expr</CODE
>, .DS <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>expr</CODE
>, .RS <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>expr</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>Reserve a number of bytes in the output. The number must be fully resolvable
during pass 1 of assembly so no forward or external references are permitted.
The value of the bytes is undefined.</P
></DD
><DT
>RMD <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>expr</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>Reserve a number of words in the output. The number must be fully
resolvable during pass 1 of assembly so no forward or external references are
permitted. The value of the words is undefined.</P
></DD
><DT
>RMQ <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>expr</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>Reserve a number of double-words in the output. The number must be fully
resolvable during pass 1 of assembly so no forward or external references are
permitted. The value of the double-words is undefined.</P
></DD
><DT
>INCLUDEBIN <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>filename</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>Treat the contents of <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>filename</CODE
> as a string of bytes to
be included literally at the current assembly point. This has the same effect
as converting the file contents to a series of FCB statements and including
those at the current assembly point.</P
><P
> If <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>filename</CODE
> beings with a /, the file name
will be taken as absolute.  Otherwise, the current directory will be
searched followed by the search path in the order specified.</P
><P
> Please note that absolute path detection including drive letters will
not function correctly on Windows platforms.  Non-absolute inclusion will
work, however.</P
></DD
><DT
>FILL <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>byte</CODE
>,<CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>size</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>Insert <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>size</CODE
> bytes of <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>byte</CODE
>.</P
></DD
></DL
></DIV
></DIV
><DIV
CLASS="SECTION"
><HR><H3
CLASS="SECTION"
><A
NAME="AEN364"
>3.6.2. Address Definition</A
></H3
><P
>The directives in this section all control the addresses of symbols
or the assembly process itself.</P
><P
></P
><DIV
CLASS="VARIABLELIST"
><DL
><DT
>ORG <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>expr</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>Set the assembly address. The address must be fully resolvable on the
first pass so no external or forward references are permitted. ORG is not
permitted within sections when outputting to object files. For target formats
that include address information (decb, hex, srec, and ihex), an ORG 
directive will re-start the address sequence within the output. When using
the raw target format, ORG is used only to determine the addresses of symbols.</P
></DD
><DT
>REORG</DT
><DD
><P
>Sets the assembly address to the value it had immediately prior to the
previous ORG statement. It is used to continue assembly after some
specification that required an additional ORG. This directive is primarily
intended for MACRO-80c compatibility. Consider using alternatives in
modern code.</P
></DD
><DT
><CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>sym</CODE
> EQU <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>expr</CODE
>, <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>sym</CODE
> = <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>expr</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>Define the value of <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>sym</CODE
> to be <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>expr</CODE
>.</P
></DD
><DT
><CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>sym</CODE
> SET <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>expr</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>Define the value of <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>sym</CODE
> to be <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>expr</CODE
>.
Unlike EQU, SET permits symbols to be defined multiple times as long as SET
is used for all instances. Use of the symbol before the first SET statement
that sets its value is undefined.</P
></DD
><DT
>SETDP <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>expr</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>Inform the assembler that it can assume the DP register contains
<CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>expr</CODE
>. This directive is only advice to the assembler
to determine whether an address is in the direct page and has no effect
on the contents of the DP register. The value must be fully resolved during
the first assembly pass because it affects the sizes of subsequent instructions.</P
><P
>This directive has no effect in the object file target.</P
></DD
><DT
>ALIGN <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>expr</CODE
>[,<CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>value</CODE
>]</DT
><DD
><P
>Force the current assembly address to be a multiple of
<CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>expr</CODE
>.  If <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>value</CODE
> is not
specified, a series of NUL bytes is output to force the alignment, if
required.  Otherwise, the low order 8 bits of <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>value</CODE
>
will be used as the fill.  The alignment value must be fully resolved on the
first pass because it affects the addresses of subsquent instructions. 
However, <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>value</CODE
> may include forward references; as
long as it resolves to a constant for the second pass, the value will be
accepted.</P
><P
>Unless <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>value</CODE
> is specified as something like $12,
this directive is not suitable for inclusion in the middle of actual code. 
The default padding value is $00 which is intended to be used within data
blocks.  </P
></DD
></DL
></DIV
></DIV
><DIV
CLASS="SECTION"
><HR><H3
CLASS="SECTION"
><A
NAME="AEN415"
>3.6.3. Conditional Assembly</A
></H3
><P
>Portions of the source code can be excluded or included based on conditions
known at assembly time. Conditionals can be nested arbitrarily deeply. The
directives associated with conditional assembly are described in this section.</P
><P
>All conditionals must be fully bracketed. That is, every conditional
statement must eventually be followed by an ENDC at the same level of nesting.</P
><P
>Conditional expressions are only evaluated on the first assembly pass.
It is not possible to game the assembly process by having a conditional
change its value between assembly passes. Due to the underlying architecture
of LWASM, there is no possible utility to IFP1 and IFP2, nor can they, as of LWASM 3.0, actually
be implemented meaningfully. Thus there is not and never will
be any equivalent of IFP1 or IFP2 as provided by other assemblers. Use of those opcodes
will throw a warning and be ignored.</P
><P
>It is important to note that if a conditional does not resolve to a constant
during the first parsing pass, an error will be thrown. This is unavoidable because the assembler
must make a decision about which source to include and which source to exclude at this stage.
Thus, expressions that work normally elsewhere will not work for conditions.</P
><P
></P
><DIV
CLASS="VARIABLELIST"
><DL
><DT
>IFEQ <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>expr</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>If <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>expr</CODE
> evaluates to zero, the conditional
will be considered true.</P
></DD
><DT
>IFNE <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>expr</CODE
>, IF <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>expr</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>If <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>expr</CODE
> evaluates to a non-zero value, the conditional
will be considered true.</P
></DD
><DT
>IFGT <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>expr</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>If <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>expr</CODE
> evaluates to a value greater than zero, the conditional
will be considered true.</P
></DD
><DT
>IFGE <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>expr</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>If <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>expr</CODE
> evaluates to a value greater than or equal to zero, the conditional
will be considered true.</P
></DD
><DT
>IFLT <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>expr</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>If <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>expr</CODE
> evaluates to a value less than zero, the conditional
will be considered true.</P
></DD
><DT
>IFLE <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>expr</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>If <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>expr</CODE
> evaluates to a value less than or equal to zero , the conditional
will be considered true.</P
></DD
><DT
>IFDEF <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>sym</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>If <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>sym</CODE
> is defined at this point in the assembly
process, the conditional
will be considered true.</P
></DD
><DT
>IFPRAGMA <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>pragma</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>If <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>pragma</CODE
> is in effect, the condition will be considered true.</P
></DD
><DT
>IFNDEF <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>sym</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>If <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>sym</CODE
> is not defined at this point in the assembly
process, the conditional
will be considered true.</P
></DD
><DT
>ELSE</DT
><DD
><P
>If the preceding conditional at the same level of nesting was false, the
statements following will be assembled. If the preceding conditional at
the same level was true, the statements following will not be assembled.
Note that the preceding conditional might have been another ELSE statement
although this behaviour is not guaranteed to be supported in future versions
of LWASM.</P
></DD
><DT
>ENDC</DT
><DD
><P
>This directive marks the end of a conditional construct. Every conditional
construct must end with an ENDC directive.</P
></DD
></DL
></DIV
></DIV
><DIV
CLASS="SECTION"
><HR><H3
CLASS="SECTION"
><A
NAME="AEN486"
>3.6.4. OS9 Target Directives</A
></H3
><P
>This section includes directives that apply solely to the OS9
target.</P
><P
></P
><DIV
CLASS="VARIABLELIST"
><DL
><DT
>OS9 <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>syscall</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>&#13;This directive generates a call to the specified system call. <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>syscall</CODE
> may be an arbitrary expression.&#13;</P
></DD
><DT
>MOD <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>size</CODE
>,<CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>name</CODE
>,<CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>type</CODE
>,<CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>flags</CODE
>,<CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>execoff</CODE
>,<CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>datasize</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>&#13;This tells LWASM that the beginning of the actual module is here. It will
generate a module header based on the parameters specified.  It will also
begin calcuating the module CRC.&#13;</P
><P
>&#13;The precise meaning of the various parameters is beyond the scope of this
document since it is not a tutorial on OS9 module programming.&#13;</P
></DD
><DT
>EMOD</DT
><DD
><P
>&#13;This marks the end of a module and causes LWASM to emit the calculated CRC
for the module.&#13;</P
></DD
></DL
></DIV
></DIV
><DIV
CLASS="SECTION"
><HR><H3
CLASS="SECTION"
><A
NAME="AEN511"
>3.6.5. Miscelaneous Directives</A
></H3
><P
>This section includes directives that do not fit into the other
categories.</P
><P
></P
><DIV
CLASS="VARIABLELIST"
><DL
><DT
>INCLUDE <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>filename</CODE
>, USE <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>filename</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
> Include the contents of <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>filename</CODE
> at
this point in the assembly as though it were a part of the file currently
being processed.  Note that if whitespace appears in the name of the file,
you must enclose <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>filename</CODE
> in quotes.</P
><P
>Note that the USE variation is provided only for compatibility with other
assemblers. It is recommended to use the INCLUDE variation.</P
><P
>If <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>filename</CODE
> begins with a &quot;/&quot;, it is
interpreted as an absolute path. If it does not, the search path will be used
to find the file. First, the directory containing the file that contains this
directive. (Includes within an included file are relative to the included file,
not the file that included it.) If the file is not found there, the include path
is searched. If it is still not found, an error will be thrown. Note that the
current directory as understood by your shell or operating system is not searched.</P
></DD
><DT
>END <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>[expr]</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>This directive causes the assembler to stop assembling immediately as though
it ran out of input. For the DECB target only, <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>expr</CODE
>
can be used to set the execution address of the resulting binary. For all
other targets, specifying <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>expr</CODE
> will cause an error.</P
></DD
><DT
>ERROR <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>string</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>Causes a custom error message to be printed at this line. This will cause
assembly to fail. This directive is most useful inside conditional constructs
to cause assembly to fail if some condition that is known bad happens. Everything
from the directive to the end of the line is considered the error message.</P
></DD
><DT
>WARNING <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>string</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>Causes a custom warning message to be printed at this line. This will not cause
assembly to fail. This directive is most useful inside conditional constructs
or include files to alert the programmer to a deprecated feature being used
or some other condition that may cause trouble later, but which may, in fact,
not cause any trouble.</P
></DD
><DT
>.MODULE <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>string</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>This directive is ignored for most output targets. If the output target
supports encoding a module name into it, <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>string</CODE
>
will be used as the module name.</P
><P
>As of version 3.0, no supported output targets support this directive.</P
></DD
></DL
></DIV
></DIV
></DIV
><DIV
CLASS="SECTION"
><HR><H2
CLASS="SECTION"
><A
NAME="AEN551"
>3.7. Macros</A
></H2
><P
>LWASM is a macro assembler. A macro is simply a name that stands in for a
series of instructions. Once a macro is defined, it is used like any other
assembler directive. Defining a macro can be considered equivalent to adding
additional assembler directives.</P
><P
>Macros may accept parameters. These parameters are referenced within a
macro by the a backslash ("\") followed by a digit 1 through 9 for the first
through ninth parameters. They may also be referenced by enclosing the
decimal parameter number in braces ("{num}"). The special expansion "\*"
translates to the exact parameter string, including all parameters, passed
to the macro. These parameter references are replaced with the verbatim text
of the parameter passed to the macro. A reference to a non-existent
parameter will be replaced by an empty string. Macro parameters are expanded
everywhere on each source line. That means the parameter to a macro could be
used as a symbol or it could even appear in a comment or could cause an
entire source line to be commented out when the macro is expanded. </P
><P
>Parameters passed to a macro are separated by commas and the parameter list
is terminated by any whitespace. This means that neither a comma nor whitespace
may be included in a macro parameter.</P
><P
>Macro expansion is done recursively. That is, within a macro, macros are
expanded. This can lead to infinite loops in macro expansion. If the assembler
hangs for a long time while assembling a file that uses macros, this may be
the reason.</P
><P
>Each macro expansion receives its own local symbol context which is not
inherited by any macros called by it nor is it inherited from the context
the macro was instantiated in. That means it is possible to use local symbols
within macros without having them collide with symbols in other macros or
outside the macro itself. However, this also means that using a local symbol
as a parameter to a macro, while legal, will not do what it would seem to do
as it will result in looking up the local symbol in the macro's symbol context
rather than the enclosing context where it came from, likely yielding either
an undefined symbol error or bizarre assembly results.</P
><P
>Note that there is no way to define a macro as local to a symbol context. All
macros are part of the global macro namespace. However, macros have a separate
namespace from symbols so it is possible to have a symbol with the same name
as a macro.</P
><P
>Macros are defined only during the first pass. Macro expansion also
only occurs during the first pass. On the second pass, the macro
definition is simply ignored. Macros must be defined before they are used.</P
><P
>The following directives are used when defining macros.</P
><P
></P
><DIV
CLASS="VARIABLELIST"
><DL
><DT
><CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>macroname</CODE
> MACRO [NOEXPAND]</DT
><DD
><P
>This directive is used to being the definition of a macro called
<CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>macroname</CODE
>. If <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>macroname</CODE
> already
exists, it is considered an error. Attempting to define a macro within a
macro is undefined. It may work and it may not so the behaviour should not
be relied upon.</P
><P
>If NOEXPAND is specified, the macro will not be expanded in a program
listing. Instead, all bytes emitted by all instructions within the macro
will appear to be emitted on the line where the macro is invoked, starting
at the address of the line of the invokation. If the macro uses ORG or other
directives that define symbols or change the assembly address, these things
will also be hidden (except in the symbol table) and the output bytes will
appear with incorrect address attribution. Thus, NOEXPAND should only be
used for macros that do not mess with the assembly address or otherwise
define symbols that should be visible.</P
></DD
><DT
>ENDM</DT
><DD
><P
>This directive indicates the end of the macro currently being defined. It
causes the assembler to resume interpreting source lines as normal.</P
></DD
></DL
></DIV
></DIV
><DIV
CLASS="SECTION"
><HR><H2
CLASS="SECTION"
><A
NAME="AEN574"
>3.8. Structures</A
></H2
><P
>&#13;Structures are used to group related data in a fixed structure. A structure
consists a number of fields, defined in sequential order and which take up
specified size.  The assembler does not enforce any means of access within a
structure; it assumes that whatever you are doing, you intended to do. 
There are two pseudo ops that are used for defining structures.&#13;</P
><P
></P
><DIV
CLASS="VARIABLELIST"
><DL
><DT
><CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>structname</CODE
> STRUCT</DT
><DD
><P
>&#13;This directive is used to begin the definition of a structure with name
<CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>structname</CODE
>.  Subsequent statements all form part of
the structure definition until the end of the structure is declared.&#13;</P
></DD
><DT
>ENDSTRUCT, ENDS</DT
><DD
><P
>This directive ends the definition of the structure. ENDSTRUCT is the
preferred form. Prior to version 3.0 of LWASM, ENDS was used to end a
section instead of a structure.</P
></DD
></DL
></DIV
><P
>&#13;Within a structure definition, only reservation pseudo ops are permitted.
Anything else will cause an assembly error.</P
><P
> Once a structure is defined, you can reserve an area of memory in the
same structure by using the structure name as the opcode.  Structures can
also contain fields that are themselves structures.  See the example
below.</P
><PRE
CLASS="PROGRAMLISTING"
>tstruct2  STRUCT
f1        rmb 1
f2        rmb 1
          ENDSTRUCT

tstruct   STRUCT
field1    rmb 2
field2    rmb 3
field3    tstruct2
          ENDSTRUCT

          ORG $2000
var1      tstruct
var2      tstruct2</PRE
><P
>Fields are referenced using a dot (.) as a separator. To refer to the
generic offset within a structure, use the structure name to the left of the
dot.  If referring to a field within an actual variable, use the variable's
symbol name to the left of the dot.</P
><P
>You can also refer to the actual size of a structure (or a variable
declared as a structure) using the special symbol sizeof{structname} where
structname will be the name of the structure or the name of the
variable.</P
><P
>Essentially, structures are a shortcut for defining a vast number of
symbols.  When a structure is defined, the assembler creates symbols for the
various fields in the form structname.fieldname as well as the appropriate
sizeof{structname} symbol.  When a variable is declared as a structure, the
assembler does the same thing using the name of the variable.  You will see
these symbols in the symbol table when the assembler is instructed to
provide a listing.  For instance, the above listing will create the
following symbols (symbol values in parentheses): tstruct2.f1 (0),
tstruct2.f2 (1), sizeof{tstruct2} (2), tstruct.field1 (0), tstruct.field2
(2), tstruct.field3 (5), tstruct.field3.f1 (5), tstruct.field3.f2 (6),
sizeof{tstruct.field3} (2), sizeof{tstruct} (7), var1 {$2000}, var1.field1
{$2000}, var1.field2 {$2002}, var1.field3 {$2005}, var1.field3.f1 {$2005},
var1.field3.f2 {$2006}, sizeof(var1.field3} (2), sizeof{var1} (7), var2
($2007), var2.f1 ($2007), var2.f2 ($2008), sizeof{var2} (2).  </P
></DIV
><DIV
CLASS="SECTION"
><HR><H2
CLASS="SECTION"
><A
NAME="AEN595"
>3.9. Object Files and Sections</A
></H2
><P
>The object file target is very useful for large project because it allows
multiple files to be assembled independently and then linked into the final
binary at a later time. It allows only the small portion of the project
that was modified to be re-assembled rather than requiring the entire set
of source code to be available to the assembler in a single assembly process.
This can be particularly important if there are a large number of macros,
symbol definitions, or other metadata that uses resources at assembly time.
By far the largest benefit, however, is keeping the source files small enough
for a mere mortal to find things in them.</P
><P
>With multi-file projects, there needs to be a means of resolving references to
symbols in other source files. These are known as external references. The
addresses of these symbols cannot be known until the linker joins all the
object files into a single binary. This means that the assembler must be
able to output the object code without knowing the value of the symbol. This
places some restrictions on the code generated by the assembler. For
example, the assembler cannot generate direct page addressing for instructions
that reference external symbols because the address of the symbol may not
be in the direct page. Similarly, relative branches and PC relative addressing
cannot be used in their eight bit forms. Everything that must be resolved
by the linker must be assembled to use the largest address size possible to
allow the linker to fill in the correct value at link time. Note that the
same problem applies to absolute address references as well, even those in
the same source file, because the address is not known until link time.</P
><P
>It is often desired in multi-file projects to have code of various types grouped
together in the final binary generated by the linker as well. The same applies
to data. In order for the linker to do that, the bits that are to be grouped
must be tagged in some manner. This is where the concept of sections comes in.
Each chunk of code or data is part of a section in the object file. Then,
when the linker reads all the object files, it coalesces all sections of the
same name into a single section and then considers it as a unit.</P
><P
>The existence of sections, however, raises a problem for symbols even
within the same source file. Thus, the assembler must treat symbols from
different sections within the same source file in the same manner as external
symbols. That is, it must leave them for the linker to resolve at link time,
with all the limitations that entails.</P
><P
>In the object file target mode, LWASM requires all source lines that
cause bytes to be output to be inside a section. Any directives that do
not cause any bytes to be output can appear outside of a section. This includes
such things as EQU or RMB. Even ORG can appear outside a section. ORG, however,
makes no sense within a section because it is the linker that determines
the starting address of the section's code, not the assembler.</P
><P
>All symbols defined globally in the assembly process are local to the 
source file and cannot be exported. All symbols defined within a section are
considered local to the source file unless otherwise explicitly exported.
Symbols referenced from external source files must be declared external,
either explicitly or by asking the assembler to assume that all undefined
symbols are external.</P
><P
>It is often handy to define a number of memory addresses that will be
used for data at run-time but which need not be included in the binary file.
These memory addresses are not initialized until run-time, either by the
program itself or by the program loader, depending on the operating environment.
Such sections are often known as BSS sections. LWASM supports generating
sections with a BSS attribute set which causes the section definition including
symbols exported from that section and those symbols required to resolve
references from the local file, but with no actual code in the object file.
It is illegal for any source lines within a BSS flagged section to cause any
bytes to be output.</P
><P
>The following directives apply to section handling.</P
><P
></P
><DIV
CLASS="VARIABLELIST"
><DL
><DT
>SECTION <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>name[,flags]</CODE
>, SECT <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>name[,flags]</CODE
>, .AREA <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>name[,flags]</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>Instructs the assembler that the code following this directive is to be
considered part of the section <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>name</CODE
>. A section name
may appear multiple times in which case it is as though all the code from
all the instances of that section appeared adjacent within the source file.
However, <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>flags</CODE
> may only be specified on the first
instance of the section.</P
><P
><CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>flags</CODE
> is a comma separated list of flags. If a
flag is "bss", the section will be treated as a BSS section and no
statements that generate output are permitted.</P
><P
>If the flag is "constant",
the same restrictions apply as for BSS sections.  Additionally, all symbols
defined in a constant section define absolute values and will not be
adjusted by the linker at link time.  Constant sections cannot define
complex expressions for symbols; the value must be fully defined at assembly
time.  Additionally, multiple instances of a constant section do not
coalesce into a single addressing unit; each instance starts again at offset
0.</P
><P
>If the section name is "bss" or ".bss" in any combination of upper and
lower case, the section is assumed to be a BSS section. In that case,
the flag <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>!bss</CODE
> can be used to override this assumption.</P
><P
> If the section name is "_constants" or "_constant", in any
combination of upper and lower case, the section is assumed to be a constant
section.  This assumption can be overridden with the "!constant"
flag.</P
><P
>If assembly is already happening within a section, the section is implicitly
ended and the new section started. This is not considered an error although
it is recommended that all sections be explicitly closed.</P
></DD
><DT
>ENDSECTION, ENDSECT</DT
><DD
><P
>This directive ends the current section. This puts assembly outside of any
sections until the next SECTION directive. ENDSECTION is the preferred form.
Prior to version 3.0 of LWASM, ENDS could also be used to end a section but
as of version 3.0, it is now an alias for ENDSTRUCT instead.</P
></DD
><DT
><CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>sym</CODE
> EXTERN, <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>sym</CODE
> EXTERNAL, <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>sym</CODE
> IMPORT</DT
><DD
><P
>This directive defines <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>sym</CODE
> as an external symbol.
This directive may occur at any point in the source code. EXTERN definitions
are resolved on the first pass so an EXTERN definition anywhere in the
source file is valid for the entire file. The use of this directive is
optional when the assembler is instructed to assume that all undefined
symbols are external. In fact, in that mode, if the symbol is referenced
before the EXTERN directive, an error will occur.</P
></DD
><DT
><CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>sym</CODE
> EXPORT, <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>sym</CODE
> .GLOBL, EXPORT <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>sym</CODE
>, .GLOBL <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>sym</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>This directive defines <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>sym</CODE
> as an exported symbol.
This directive may occur at any point in the source code, even before the
definition of the exported symbol.</P
><P
>Note that <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>sym</CODE
> may appear as the operand or as the
statement's symbol. If there is a symbol on the statement, that will
take precedence over any operand that is present.</P
></DD
><DT
><CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>sym</CODE
> EXTDEP</DT
><DD
><P
>This directive forces an external dependency on
<CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>sym</CODE
>, even if it is never referenced anywhere else in
this file.</P
></DD
></DL
></DIV
></DIV
><DIV
CLASS="SECTION"
><HR><H2
CLASS="SECTION"
><A
NAME="AEN659"
>3.10. Assembler Modes and Pragmas</A
></H2
><P
>There are a number of options that affect the way assembly is performed.
Some of these options can only be specified on the command line because
they determine something absolute about the assembly process. These include
such things as the output target. Other things may be switchable during
the assembly process. These are known as pragmas and are, by definition,
not portable between assemblers.</P
><P
>LWASM supports a number of pragmas that affect code generation or
otherwise affect the behaviour of the assembler. These may be specified by
way of a command line option or by assembler directives. The directives
are as follows.</P
><P
></P
><DIV
CLASS="VARIABLELIST"
><DL
><DT
>PRAGMA <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>pragma[,...]</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>Specifies that the assembler should bring into force all <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>pragma</CODE
>s
specified. Any unrecognized pragma will cause an assembly error. The new
pragmas will take effect immediately. This directive should be used when
the program will assemble incorrectly if the pragma is ignored or not supported.</P
></DD
><DT
>*PRAGMA <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>pragma[,...]</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>This is identical to the PRAGMA directive except no error will occur with
unrecognized or unsupported pragmas. This directive, by virtue of starting
with a comment character, will also be ignored by assemblers that do not
support this directive. Use this variation if the pragma is not required
for correct functioning of the code.</P
></DD
><DT
>*PRAGMAPUSH <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>pragma[,...]</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>This directive saves the current state of the specified pragma(s) for later retrieval. See discussion below for more information.</P
><P
>This directive will not throw any errors for any reason.</P
></DD
><DT
>*PRAGMAPOP <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>pragma[,...]</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>This directive restores the previously saved state of the specified pragma(s). See discussion below for more information.</P
><P
>This directive will not throw any errors for any reason.</P
></DD
></DL
></DIV
><P
>Each pragma supported has a positive version and a negative version. 
The positive version enables the pragma while the negative version disables
it.  The negatitve version is simply the positive version with "no" prefixed
to it.  For instance, "pragma" vs.  "nopragma".  When only one version is
listed below, its opposite can be obtained by prepending "no" if it is not
present or removing "no" from the beginning if it is present.</P
><P
>Pragmas are not case sensitive.</P
><P
></P
><DIV
CLASS="VARIABLELIST"
><DL
><DT
>6800compat</DT
><DD
><P
>When in force, this pragma enables recognition of various
compatibility instructions useful when assembling 6800 code.  These
compatibility instructions are assembled into equivalent 6809 instructions. 
This mode also includes several analogous instructions which are not
strictly 6800 instructions but allow the similar style to be applied to 6809
specific features.</P
><P
>Technically, a compliant 6809 assembler must recognize these
instructions by default since Motorola advertised the 6809 as being source
compatible with the 6800.  However, most source code does not require this
compatibility and LWASM itself did not support these instructions prior to
version 4.11 so this mode is disabled by default.</P
></DD
><DT
>6809</DT
><DD
><P
>This pragma allows you to mark a section of code as 6809-only. In ths mode,
the assembler will throw an error if any 6309 instructions are used.</P
></DD
><DT
>6309</DT
><DD
><P
>This pragma enables the use of 6309 instructions and disables any 6809 specific
instructions. It also changes the cycle count listing output (if selected)
to display 6309 timings.</P
></DD
><DT
>6809conv, 6309conv</DT
><DD
><P
>These pragmas enable convenience instructions extending the 6809 and 6309
instruction sets respectively. For more information, see 
<A
HREF="#CONVINST"
>Section 3.11</A
>.</P
></DD
><DT
>index0tonone</DT
><DD
><P
>When in force, this pragma enables an optimization affecting indexed addressing
modes. When the offset expression in an indexed mode evaluates to zero but is
not explicity written as 0, this will replace the operand with the equivalent
no offset mode, thus creating slightly faster code. Because of the advantages
of this optimization, it is enabled by default.</P
></DD
><DT
>cescapes</DT
><DD
><P
>This pragma will cause strings in the FCC, FCS, and FCN pseudo operations to
have C-style escape sequences interpreted. The one departure from the official
spec is that unrecognized escape sequences will return either the character
immediately following the backslash or some undefined value. Do not rely
on the behaviour of undefined escape sequences.</P
></DD
><DT
>importundefexport</DT
><DD
><P
>This pragma is only valid for targets that support external references. When
in force, it will cause the EXPORT directive to act as IMPORT if the symbol
to be exported is not defined.  This is provided for compatibility with the
output of gcc6809 and should not be used in hand written code.  Because of
the confusion this pragma can cause, it is disabled by default.</P
></DD
><DT
>undefextern</DT
><DD
><P
>This pragma is only valid for targets that support external references. When in
force, if the assembler sees an undefined symbol on the second pass, it will
automatically define it as an external symbol. This automatic definition will
apply for the remainder of the assembly process, even if the pragma is
subsequently turned off. Because this behaviour would be potentially surprising,
this pragma defaults to off.</P
><P
>The primary use for this pragma is for projects that share a large number of
symbols between source files. In such cases, it is impractical to enumerate
all the external references in every source file. This allows the assembler
and linker to do the heavy lifting while not preventing a particular source
module from defining a local symbol of the same name as an external symbol
if it does not need the external symbol. (This pragma will not cause an
automatic external definition if there is already a locally defined symbol.)</P
><P
>This pragma will often be specified on the command line for large projects.
However, depending on the specific dynamics of the project, it may be sufficient
for one or two files to use this pragma internally.</P
></DD
><DT
>export</DT
><DD
><P
>This pragma causes all symbols to be added to the export list
automatically.  This is useful when a large number of symbols need to be
exported but you do not wish to include an EXPORT directive for all of them. 
This is often useful on the command line but might be useful even inline
with the PRAGMA directive if a large number of symbols in a row are to be
exported.</P
></DD
><DT
>dollarlocal</DT
><DD
><P
>When set, a "$" in a symbol makes it local. When not set, "$" does not
cause a symbol to be local.  It is set by default except when using the OS9
target.</P
></DD
><DT
>dollarnotlocal</DT
><DD
><P
> This is the same as the "dollarlocal" pragma except its sense is
reversed.  That is, "dollarlocal" and "nodollarnotlocal" are equivalent and
"nodollarlocal" and "dollarnotlocal" are equivalent.  </P
></DD
><DT
>pcaspcr</DT
><DD
><P
> Normally, LWASM makes a distinction between PC and PCR in program
counter relative addressing. In particular, the use of PC means an absolute
offset from PC while PCR causes the assembler to calculate the offset to the
specified operand and use that as the offset from PC. By setting this
pragma, you can have PC treated the same as PCR. </P
></DD
><DT
>shadow</DT
><DD
><P
>When this pragma is in effect, it becomes possible to define a macro
that matches an internal operation code. Thus, it makes it possible to
redefine either CPU instructions or pseudo operations. Because this feature
is of dubious utility, it is disabled by default.</P
></DD
><DT
>nolist</DT
><DD
><P
>Lines where this pragma is in effect will not appear in the assembly
listing.  Also, any symbols defined under this pragma will not show up in
the symbol list.  This is most useful in include files to avoid spamming the
assembly listing with dozens, hundreds, or thousands of irrelevant
symbols.</P
></DD
><DT
>autobranchlength</DT
><DD
><P
>One of the perennial annoyances for 6809 programmers is that the
mneumonics for the short and long branch instructions are different (bxx vs. 
lbxx), which is at odds with the rest of the instruction set.  This pragma
is a solution to those annoying byte overflow errors that short branch
instructions tend to aquire.</P
><P
>When this pragma is in effect, which is not the default, whenever any
relative branch instruction is used, its size will be automatically
determined based on the actual distance to the destination.  In other words,
one can write code with long or short branches everywhere and the assembler
will choose a size for the branch.</P
><P
>Also, while this pragma is in effect, the &#62; and &#60; symbols can be used
to force the branch size, analogous to their use for other instructions with
&#60; forcing 8 bit offsets and &#62; forcing 16 bit offets.</P
><P
>Because this pragma leads to source that is incompatible with other
assemblers, it is strongly recommended that it be invoked using the PRAGMA
directive within the source code rather than on the command line or via the
*PRAGMA directive.  This way, an error will be raised if someone tries to
assemble the code under a different assembler.</P
></DD
><DT
>nosymbolcase, symbolnocase</DT
><DD
><P
>Any symbol defined while this pragma is in force will be treated as
case insensitive, regardless whether the pragma is in force when the symbol
is referenced.</P
><P
>It is important to note that this pragma will not work as expected in
all cases when using the object file assembly target.  It is intended for
use only when the assembler will be producing the final binary.</P
></DD
><DT
>condundefzero</DT
><DD
><P
>This pragma will cause the assembler to change the way it handles
symbols in conditional expressions.  Ordinarily, any symbol that is not
defined prior to the conditional will throw an undefined symbol error.  With
this pragma in effect, symbols that are not yet defined at the point the
conditional is encountered will be treated as zero.</P
><P
>This is not the default because it encourages poor code design. One
should use the "IFDEF" or "IFNDEF" conditionals to test for the presence of
a symbol.</P
><P
>It is important to note that if a symbol is defined but it does not
yet evaluate to a constant value at the point where the conditional appears,
the assembler will still complain about a non constant condition.</P
></DD
><DT
>forwardrefmax</DT
><DD
><P
>This pragma will disable forward reference optimization completely.
Ordinarily, LWASM will attempt to select the shortest possible addressing
mode for forward references.  However, in many source files, especially
those not using the PCR relative addressing modes, this optimization is
pointless since the assembler will almost certainly settle on a 16 bit
offset or address.  If all variables in the direct page are defined before
the main body of the code, the benefit of forward reference optimization
almost certainly vanishes completely.  However, the cost of doing that
optimization remains and can result in a very long assembly time.</P
><P
>Enabling this pragma will cause all forward references to use the
maximum offset or address size, much the same has EDTASM and other pure
two pass assemblers do. The side effect is that all line lengths and
symbol values are fully resolved after the initial parsing pass and the
amount of work to resolve everything becomes almost nil.</P
><P
>While this pragma can be applied selectively to sections of source
code (use *PRAGMA if doing so and compatibility with other assemblers
is desired), it is likely more useful when provided as a command line
pragma.</P
><P
>It should be noted that the presence or absence of this pragma
will not change the correctness of the generated code unless cycle counts
or byte counts are critical (which they usually are not). It also will
not override the operand size override prefixes (&lt; and &gt;). It only
applies when the assembler is left to guess what the operand size is.</P
></DD
><DT
>operandsizewarning</DT
><DD
><P
>Enabling this pragma will cause LWASM to show a warning when it
detects that a smaller addressing mode could be used for an instruction.
This is particularly useful for finding places where long branches are used
where short branches could be used instead. It will also show the warnings
for indexing offsets (regardless of whether the operand size is
forced).</P
><P
>As of LWASM 4.16, no other checks are performed.</P
></DD
><DT
>qrts</DT
><DD
><P
>&#13;Enables the use of the ?RTS branch target. ?RTS is implemented to maintain
compatibility with the MACRO-80c assembler.  It works by searching backward
in the code for an RTS instruction.  If none is found, it inverts the branch
logic and inserts an RTS following the branch instruction.  Below you can
see how a BMI (2B xx) has been assembled as a BPL *+1 (2A 01) to skip over an
inserted RTS (39).</P
><PRE
CLASS="PROGRAMLISTING"
>1D1E 7D1D1D            TST   WHICH1
1D21 2A0139            BMI   ?RTS
1D24 BD1D65            JSR   INV</PRE
></DD
><DT
>m80ext</DT
><DD
><P
>&#13;This pragma (along with pragma qrts) enables some uncommon behaviors to
accomodate The Micro Works MACRO-80c assembler from 1982.  This assembler
was used by a number of notable TRS-80 Color Computer applications and the
goal of this pragma is to allow them to build identical binaries from
unmodified, vintage source code.</P
><P
>&#13;In m80ext mode, the handling of the "END" pseudo-op changes when used inside
an include file.  Instead of terminating all assembly, it merely stops
processing of the current include file (this behavior matches the original
Motorola 6809 assembler).  In addition, loading an ASCII value with a single
quote (e.g., LDA #'N) is extended to 16-bit registers (e.g., LDD #'NO). 
LWASM normally supports this via double quote and that is the proper use in
modern code.  Finally, the FCC pseudo-op is extended to handle FCB-like
behavior after the closing delimiter:</P
><PRE
CLASS="PROGRAMLISTING"
>                       FCC "Greetings from 1982",13,0</PRE
></DD
><DT
>testmode</DT
><DD
><P
>&#13;This pragma is intended for internal testing purposes. In testmode, the
assembler searches for a specially-formatted comment starting with a
semicolon followed by a period.  Immediately afterward are a list of hex
bytes that the assembler is expected to generate.  Likewise, if the
assembler is expected to throw an error or warning on a given line, you can
check by specifying "E:" followed by the error number.  In this case the
error is ignored and the assembler continues ignoring the line in question.&#13;</P
><PRE
CLASS="PROGRAMLISTING"
>1D1E 7D1D1D            TST   WHICH1    ;.7d1d1d
1D21 2A0139            BMI   ?RTS      ;.2a0139
1D24 1D24              FDB   *         ;.1d24
1D26                   xyz   INV       ;.E:32    (Error 32 is "Bad opcode")</PRE
></DD
></DL
></DIV
><P
>As a convenience, each input file has a pragma state stack. This
allows, through the use of *PRAGMAPUSH and *PRAGMAPOP, a file to change a
pragma state and then restore it to the precise state it had previously. 
If, at the end of an input file, all pragma states have not been popped,
they will be removed from the stack.  Thus, it is critical to employ
*PRAGMAPOP correctly. Because each input file has its own pragma stack,
using *PRAGMAPUSH in one file and *PRAGMAPOP in another file will not
work.</P
><P
>Pragma stacks are more useful in include files, in particular in
conjunction with the nolist pragma.  One can push the state of the nolist
pragma, engage the nolist pragma, and then pop the state of the nolist
pragma at the end of the include file.  This will cause the entire include
file to operate under the nolist pragma.  However, if the file is included
while nolist is already engaged, it will not undo that state.</P
></DIV
><DIV
CLASS="SECTION"
><HR><H2
CLASS="SECTION"
><A
NAME="CONVINST"
>3.11. Convenience Instructions</A
></H2
><P
>&#13;Similar to the 6800 compatibility instructions (pragma 6800compat) these
pragma 6809conv and pragma 6309conv enable convenience extensions to the
6809 and 6309 instruction set.  Originally intended for compatibility with
the MACRO-80c assembler, these have proven useful in large codebases that
target both the 6809 and the 6309.</P
><P
>&#13;The 6809 extensions are straightforward with the exception of "TSTD" which
assembles as "STD -2,S".  A benefit of using these is they will "just work"
and take on their 6309 equivalent when you enable 6309 assembly mode. 
Supported instructions: ASRD, CLRD,   COMD,   LSLD,   LSRD,   NEGD,   TSTD.</P
><P
>&#13;6309 extensions are based on common patterns described by Chris Burke and
Darren Atkinson in their 6309 documentation and include the following
instructions: ASRQ,   CLRQ,   COMQ,   LSLE,   LSLF,   LSLQ,   LSRQ,   NEGE,
   NEGF,   NEGW,   NEGQ,   TSTQ.</P
></DIV
><DIV
CLASS="SECTION"
><HR><H2
CLASS="SECTION"
><A
NAME="AEN805"
>3.12. Cycle Counts</A
></H2
><P
>&#13;The following options for displaying cycle counts in listings are provided.
These options are enabled from pragmas on the command line or in the
assembly files themselves.  For compatibility with other assemblers you can
use the "OPT" keyword in addition to "PRAGMA."</P
><PRE
CLASS="PROGRAMLISTING"
>opt c  - enable cycle counts: [8]
opt cd - enable detailed cycle counts breaking down addressing modes: [5+3]
opt ct - show a running subtotal of cycles
opt cc - clear the running subtotal</PRE
><P
>&#13;The assembler supports both 6809 as well as native-mode 6309 cycle counts.
In 6309 mode the counts are displayed in parenthesis instead of brackets. 
In addition, some operations have a variable cycle count.  In this case a
"+?" is displayed to alert the reader.  Sample output is shown below.</P
><PRE
CLASS="PROGRAMLISTING"
>266f 7d25e2     (window.asm):00313 [7]     7       move   tst   putflg
2672 2602       (window.asm):00314 [5]     12             bne   a@
2674 1e13       (window.asm):00315 [8]     20             exg   x,u
2676 0dd6       (window.asm):00316 [6]     26      a@     tst   is6309
2678 2618       (window.asm):00317 [5]     31             bne   exit@
                (window.asm):00318                        opt   6309
267a 10860085   (window.asm):00319 (4)     35      b@     ldw   #133
267e 113813     (window.asm):00320 (6+?)   41             tfm   x+,u+
2681 30881b     (window.asm):00321 (4+1)   46             leax  27,x
2684 33c81b     (window.asm):00322 (4+1)   51             leau  27,u
2687 4a         (window.asm):00323 (1)     52             deca
2688 26f0       (window.asm):00324 (5)     57             bne   b@</PRE
></DIV
></DIV
><DIV
CLASS="CHAPTER"
><HR><H1
><A
NAME="AEN811"
></A
>Chapter 4. LWLINK</H1
><P
>The LWTOOLS linker is called LWLINK. This chapter documents the various features
of the linker.</P
><DIV
CLASS="SECTION"
><HR><H2
CLASS="SECTION"
><A
NAME="AEN814"
>4.1. Command Line Options</A
></H2
><P
>The binary for LWLINK is called "lwlink". Note that the binary is in lower
case. lwlink takes the following command line arguments.</P
><P
></P
><DIV
CLASS="VARIABLELIST"
><DL
><DT
><CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>--decb</CODE
>, <CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>-b</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>Selects the DECB output format target. This is equivalent to <CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>--format=decb</CODE
></P
></DD
><DT
><CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>--output=FILE</CODE
>, <CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>-o FILE</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>This option specifies the name of the output file. If not specified, the
default is <CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>a.out</CODE
>.</P
></DD
><DT
><CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>--format=TYPE</CODE
>, <CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>-f TYPE</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>This option specifies the output format. Valid values are <CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>decb</CODE
>
and <CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>raw</CODE
></P
></DD
><DT
><CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>--raw</CODE
>, <CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>-r</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>This option specifies the raw output format.
It is equivalent to <CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>--format=raw</CODE
>
and <CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>-f raw</CODE
></P
></DD
><DT
><CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>--script=FILE</CODE
>, <CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>-s</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>This option allows specifying a linking script to override the linker's
built in defaults.</P
></DD
><DT
><CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>--section-base=SECT=BASE</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>Cause section SECT to load at base address BASE. This will be prepended
to the built-in link script. It is ignored if a link script is provided.</P
></DD
><DT
><CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>--map=FILE</CODE
>, <CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>-m FILE</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>This will output a description of the link result to FILE.</P
></DD
><DT
><CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>--library=LIBSPEC</CODE
>, <CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>-l LIBSPEC</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>Load a library using the library search path. If LIBSPEC is prefixed with a
colon (":"), then LIBSPEC is the precise filename to be searched for in the
library path. Otherwise, LIBSPEC will have "lib" prepended and ".a" appended.</P
></DD
><DT
><CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>--library-path=DIR</CODE
>, <CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>-L DIR</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>Add DIR to the library search path.</P
></DD
><DT
><CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>--debug</CODE
>, <CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>-d</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>This option increases the debugging level. It is only useful for LWTOOLS
developers.</P
></DD
><DT
><CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>--help</CODE
>, <CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>-?</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>This provides a listing of command line options and a brief description
of each.</P
></DD
><DT
><CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>--usage</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>This will display a usage summary
of each command line option.</P
></DD
><DT
><CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>--version</CODE
>, <CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>-V</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>This will display the version of LWLINK.</P
></DD
></DL
></DIV
></DIV
><DIV
CLASS="SECTION"
><HR><H2
CLASS="SECTION"
><A
NAME="AEN911"
>4.2. Linker Operation</A
></H2
><P
>&#13;LWLINK takes one or more files in supported input formats and links them
into a single binary. Currently supported formats are the LWTOOLS object
file format and the archive format used by LWAR. While the precise method is
slightly different, linking can be conceptualized as the following steps.&#13;</P
><P
></P
><OL
TYPE="1"
><LI
><P
>First, the linker loads a linking script. If no script is specified, it
loads a built-in default script based on the output format selected. This
script tells the linker how to lay out the various sections in the final
binary.</P
></LI
><LI
><P
>Next, the linker reads all the input files into memory. At this time, it
flags any format errors in those files. It constructs a table of symbols
for each object at this time.</P
></LI
><LI
><P
>The linker then proceeds with organizing the sections loaded from each file
according to the linking script. As it does so, it is able to assign addresses
to each symbol defined in each object file. At this time, the linker may
also collapse different instances of the same section name into a single
section by appending the data from each subsequent instance of the section
to the first instance of the section.</P
></LI
><LI
><P
>Next, the linker looks through every object file for every incomplete reference.
It then attempts to fully resolve that reference. If it cannot do so, it
throws an error. Once a reference is resolved, the value is placed into
the binary code at the specified section. It should be noted that an
incomplete reference can reference either a symbol internal to the object
file or an external symbol which is in the export list of another object
file.</P
></LI
><LI
><P
>If all of the above steps are successful, the linker opens the output file
and actually constructs the binary.</P
></LI
></OL
></DIV
><DIV
CLASS="SECTION"
><HR><H2
CLASS="SECTION"
><A
NAME="AEN925"
>4.3. Linking Scripts</A
></H2
><P
>A linker script is used to instruct the linker about how to assemble the
various sections into a completed binary. It consists of a series of
directives which are considered in the order they are encountered.</P
><P
>The sections will appear in the resulting binary in the order they are
specified in the script file. If a referenced section is not found, the linker will behave as though the
section did exist but had a zero size, no relocations, and no exports.
A section should only be referenced once. Any subsequent references will have
an undefined effect.</P
><P
>All numbers are in linking scripts are specified in hexadecimal. All directives
are case sensitive although the hexadecimal numbers are not.</P
><P
>A section name can be specified as a "*", then any section not
already matched by the script will be matched. The "*" can be followed
by a comma and a flag to narrow the section down slightly, also.
If the flag is "!bss", then any section that is not flagged as a bss section
will be matched. If the flag is "bss", then any section that is flagged as
bss will be matched.</P
><P
>The following directives are understood in a linker script.</P
><P
></P
><DIV
CLASS="VARIABLELIST"
><DL
><DT
>sectopt <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>section</CODE
> padafter <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>byte,...</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>&#13;This will cause the linker to append the specified list of byte values
(specified in hexadecimal separated by commas) to the end of the named
section.  This is done once all instances of the specified section are
collected together.  This has no effect if the specified section does not
appear anywhere in any of the objects specified for linking. &#13;</P
><P
>&#13;If code depends on the presence of this padding somewhere, it is sufficient
to include an empty section of the specified name in the object that depends
on it.&#13;</P
></DD
><DT
>define basesympat <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>string</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>&#13;This causes the linker to define a symbol for the ultimate base address of
each section using the pattern specified by <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>string</CODE
>. 
In the string, %s can appear exactly once and will be replaced with the
section name.  The base address is calculated after all instances of each
section have been collapsed together.&#13;</P
><P
>&#13;It should be noted that if none of the objects to be linked contains a
particular section name, there will be no base symbol defined for it, even
if it is listed explicitly in the link script.  If code depends on the
presence of these symbols, it is sufficient to include an empty section of
the specified name in the object that depends on it.&#13;</P
><P
>  If the pattern resolves to the same string for multiple
sections, the results are undefined.&#13;</P
></DD
><DT
>define lensympat <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>string</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>&#13;This causes the linker to define a symbol for the ultimate length of each
section using the pattern specified by <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>string</CODE
>.  In
the string, %s can appear exactly once and will be replaced with the section
name.  The length is calculated after all instances of a section have been
collapsed together.&#13;</P
><P
>&#13;It should be noted that if none of the objects to be linked contains a
particular section name, there will be no length symbol defined for it, even
if it is listed explicitly in the link script.  If code depends on the
presence of these symbols, it is sufficient to include an empty section of
the specified name in the object that depends on it.&#13;</P
><P
>If the pattern resolves to the same string for multiple
sections, the results are undefined.&#13;</P
></DD
><DT
>section <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>name</CODE
> load <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>addr</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>&#13;This causes the section <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>name</CODE
> to load at
<CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>addr</CODE
>. For the raw target, only one "load at" entry is
allowed for non-bss sections and it must be the first one. For raw targets,
it affects the addresses the linker assigns to symbols but has no other
affect on the output. bss sections may all have separate load addresses but
since they will not appear in the binary anyway, this is okay.</P
><P
>For the decb target, each "load" entry will cause a new "block" to be
output to the binary which will contain the load address. It is legal for
sections to overlap in this manner - the linker assumes the loader will sort
everything out.</P
></DD
><DT
>section <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>name</CODE
> high <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>addr</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>&#13;This causes the section <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>name</CODE
> to load with its end
address just below <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>addr</CODE
>.  Subsequent sections are
loaded at progressively lower addresses.  This may lead to inefficient file
encoding for some targets.  As of this writing, it will also almost
certainly do the wrong thing for a raw target.&#13;</P
><P
>&#13;This is useful for aligning a block of code with high memory.  As an
example, if the total size of a section is $100 bytes and a high address of
$FE00 is specified, the section will actually load at $FD00.&#13;</P
></DD
><DT
>section <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>name</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>&#13;This will cause the section <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>name</CODE
> to load after the previously listed
section.</P
></DD
><DT
>entry <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>addr or sym</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>This will cause the execution address (entry point) to be the address
specified (in hex) or the specified symbol name. The symbol name must
match a symbol that is exported by one of the object files being linked.
This has no effect for targets that do not encode the entry point into the
resulting file. If not specified, the entry point is assumed to be address 0
which is probably not what you want. The default link scripts for targets
that support this directive automatically starts at the beginning of the
first section (usually "init" or "code") that is emitted in the binary.</P
></DD
><DT
>pad <CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>size</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>This will cause the output file to be padded with NUL bytes to be exactly
<CODE
CLASS="PARAMETER"
>size</CODE
> bytes in length. This only makes sense for a raw target.</P
></DD
></DL
></DIV
></DIV
><DIV
CLASS="SECTION"
><HR><H2
CLASS="SECTION"
><A
NAME="AEN991"
>4.4. Format Specific Linking Notes</A
></H2
><P
>Some formats require special information to be able to generate actual
binaries.  If the specific format you are interested in is not listed in
this section, then there is nothing special you need to know about to create
a final binary.</P
><DIV
CLASS="SECTION"
><HR><H3
CLASS="SECTION"
><A
NAME="AEN994"
>4.4.1. OS9 Modules</A
></H3
><P
>OS9 modules need to embed several items into the module header. These
items are the type of module, the langauge of the module, the module
attributes, the module revision number, the data size (bss), and the
execution offset.  These are all either calculated or default to reasonable
values.</P
><P
>The data size is calcuated as the sum of all sections named "bss" or
".bss" in all object files that are linked together.</P
><P
>The execution offset is calculated from the address of the special
symbol "__start" which must be an exported (external) symbol in one of the
objects to be linked.</P
><P
>The type defaults to "Prgrm" or "Program module". The language
defaults to "Objct" or "6809 object code".  Attributes default to enabling
the re-entrant flag.  And finally, the revision defaults to zero.</P
><P
>The embedded module name is the output filename. If the output
filename includes more than just the filename, this will probably not be
what you want.</P
><P
>The type, language, attributes, revision, and module name can all be
overridden by providing a special section in exactly one of the object files
to be linked.  This section is called "__os9" (note the two underscores). 
To override the type, language, attributes, or revision values, define a
non-exported symbol in this section called "type", "lang", "attr", or "rev"
respectively.  Any other symbols defined are ignored.  To override the
module name, include as the only actual code in the section a NUL terminated
string (the FCN directive is useful for this).  If there is no code in the
section or it beings with a NUL, the default name will be used.  Any of the
preceeding that are not defined in the special section will retain their
default values.</P
><P
>The built-in link script for OS9 modules will place the following
sections, in order, in the module: "code", ".text", "data", ".data".  It
will merge all sections with the name "bss" or ".bss" into the "data"
section.  All other section names are ignored.  What this means is that you
must define your data variables in the a section called "bss" or ".bss" even
though you will be refencing them all as offsets from U.  This does have the
unpleasant side effect that all BSS references will end up being 16 bit
offsets because the assembler cannot know what the offset will be once the
linker is finished its work.  Thus, if the tightest possible code is
required, having LWASM directly output the module is a better choice.</P
><P
>While the built-in link script is probably sufficient for most
purposes, you can provide your own script.  If you provide a custom link
script, you must start your code and data sections at location 000D to
accommodate the module header.  Otherwise, you will have an incorrect
location for the execution offset.  You must use the ENTRY directive in the
script to define the entry point for the module.</P
><P
>It should also be obvious from the above that you cannot mix the bss
(rmb) definitions with the module code when linking separately.  Those
familiar with typical module creation will probably find this an unpleasant
difference but it is unavoidable.</P
><P
>It should also be noted that direct page references should also be
avoided because you cannot know ahead of time whether the linker is going to
end up putting a particular variable in the first 256 bytes of the module's
data space.  If, however, you know for certain you will have less than 256
bytes of defined data space across all of the object files that will be
linked, you can instead use forced DP addressing for your data addresses
instead of the ,u notation.  When linking with 3rd party libraries, this
practice should be avoided.  Also, when creating libraries, always use the
offset from U technique.</P
></DIV
></DIV
></DIV
><DIV
CLASS="CHAPTER"
><HR><H1
><A
NAME="AEN1006"
></A
>Chapter 5. Libraries and LWAR</H1
><P
>LWTOOLS also includes a tool for managing libraries. These are analogous to
the static libraries created with the "ar" tool on POSIX systems. Each library
file contains one or more object files. The linker will treat the object
files within a library as though they had been specified individually on
the command line except when resolving external references. External references
are looked up first within the object files within the library and then, if
not found, the usual lookup based on the order the files are specified on
the command line occurs.</P
><P
>The tool for creating these libary files is called LWAR.</P
><DIV
CLASS="SECTION"
><HR><H2
CLASS="SECTION"
><A
NAME="AEN1010"
>5.1. Command Line Options</A
></H2
><P
>The binary for LWAR is called "lwar". Note that the binary is in lower
case. The options lwar understands are listed below. For archive manipulation
options, the first non-option argument is the name of the archive. All other
non-option arguments are the names of files to operate on.</P
><P
></P
><DIV
CLASS="VARIABLELIST"
><DL
><DT
><CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>--add</CODE
>, <CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>-a</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>This option specifies that an archive is going to have files added to it.
If the archive does not already exist, it is created. New files are added
to the end of the archive.</P
></DD
><DT
><CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>--create</CODE
>, <CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>-c</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>This option specifies that an archive is going to be created and have files
added to it. If the archive already exists, it is truncated.</P
></DD
><DT
><CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>--merge</CODE
>, <CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>-m</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>If specified, any files specified to be added to an archive will be checked
to see if they are archives themselves. If so, their constituent members are
added to the archive. This is useful for avoiding archives containing archives.</P
></DD
><DT
><CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>--list</CODE
>, <CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>-l</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>This will display a list of the files contained in the archive.</P
></DD
><DT
><CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>--debug</CODE
>, <CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>-d</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>This option increases the debugging level. It is only useful for LWTOOLS
developers.</P
></DD
><DT
><CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>--help</CODE
>, <CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>-?</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>This provides a listing of command line options and a brief description
of each.</P
></DD
><DT
><CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>--usage</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>This will display a usage summary
of each command line option.</P
></DD
><DT
><CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>--version</CODE
>, <CODE
CLASS="OPTION"
>-V</CODE
></DT
><DD
><P
>This will display the version of LWLINK.
of each.</P
></DD
></DL
></DIV
></DIV
></DIV
><DIV
CLASS="CHAPTER"
><HR><H1
><A
NAME="OBJCHAP"
></A
>Chapter 6. Object Files</H1
><P
>LWTOOLS uses a proprietary object file format. It is proprietary in the sense
that it is specific to LWTOOLS, not that it is a hidden format. It would be
hard to keep it hidden in an open source tool chain anyway. This chapter
documents the object file format.</P
><P
>An object file consists of a series of sections each of which contains a
list of exported symbols, a list of incomplete references, and a list of
"local" symbols which may be used in calculating incomplete references. Each
section will obviously also contain the object code.</P
><P
>Exported symbols must be completely resolved to an address within the
section it is exported from. That is, an exported symbol must be a constant
rather than defined in terms of other symbols.</P
><P
>Each object file starts with a magic number and version number. The magic
number is the string "LWOBJ16" for this 16 bit object file format. The only
defined version number is currently 0. Thus, the first 8 bytes of the object
file are <FONT
COLOR="RED"
>4C574F424A313600</FONT
></P
><P
>Each section has the following items in order:</P
><P
></P
><UL
><LI
><P
>section name</P
></LI
><LI
><P
>flags</P
></LI
><LI
><P
>list of local symbols (and addresses within the section)</P
></LI
><LI
><P
>list of exported symbols (and addresses within the section)</P
></LI
><LI
><P
>list of incomplete references along with the expressions to calculate them</P
></LI
><LI
><P
>the actual object code (for non-BSS sections)</P
></LI
></UL
><P
>The section starts with the name of the section with a NUL termination
followed by a series of flag bytes terminated by NUL. There are only two
flag bytes defined. A NUL (0) indicates no more flags and a value of 1
indicates the section is a BSS section. For a BSS section, no actual
code is included in the object file.</P
><P
>Either a NULL section name or end of file indicate the presence of no more
sections.</P
><P
>Each entry in the exported and local symbols table consists of the symbol
(NUL terminated) followed by two bytes which contain the value in big endian
order. The end of a symbol table is indicated by a NULL symbol name.</P
><P
>Each entry in the incomplete references table consists of an expression
followed by a 16 bit offset where the reference goes. Expressions are
defined as a series of terms up to an "end of expression" term. Each term
consists of a single byte which identifies the type of term (see below)
followed by any data required by the term. Then end of the list is flagged
by a NULL expression (only an end of expression term).</P
><DIV
CLASS="TABLE"
><A
NAME="AEN1093"
></A
><P
><B
>Table 6-1. Object File Term Types</B
></P
><TABLE
BORDER="1"
FRAME="border"
CLASS="CALSTABLE"
><COL><COL><THEAD
><TR
><TH
>TERMTYPE</TH
><TH
>Meaning</TH
></TR
></THEAD
><TBODY
><TR
><TD
>00</TD
><TD
>end of expression</TD
></TR
><TR
><TD
>01</TD
><TD
>integer (16 bit in big endian order follows)</TD
></TR
><TR
><TD
>02</TD
><TD
>	external symbol reference (NUL terminated symbol name follows)</TD
></TR
><TR
><TD
>03</TD
><TD
>local symbol reference (NUL terminated symbol name follows)</TD
></TR
><TR
><TD
>04</TD
><TD
>operator (1 byte operator number)</TD
></TR
><TR
><TD
>05</TD
><TD
>section base address reference</TD
></TR
><TR
><TD
>FF</TD
><TD
>This term will set flags for the expression. Each one of these terms will set a single flag. All of them should be specified first in an expression. If they are not, the behaviour is undefined. The byte following is the flag. Flag 01 indicates an 8 bit relocation. Flag 02 indicates a zero-width relocation (see the EXTDEP pseudo op in LWASM).</TD
></TR
></TBODY
></TABLE
></DIV
><P
>External references are resolved using other object files while local
references are resolved using the local symbol table(s) from this file. This
allows local symbols that are not exported to have the same names as
exported symbols or external references.</P
><DIV
CLASS="TABLE"
><A
NAME="AEN1123"
></A
><P
><B
>Table 6-2. Object File Operator Numbers</B
></P
><TABLE
BORDER="1"
FRAME="border"
CLASS="CALSTABLE"
><COL><COL><THEAD
><TR
><TH
>Number</TH
><TH
>Operator</TH
></TR
></THEAD
><TBODY
><TR
><TD
>01</TD
><TD
>addition (+)</TD
></TR
><TR
><TD
>02</TD
><TD
>subtraction (-)</TD
></TR
><TR
><TD
>03</TD
><TD
>multiplication (*)</TD
></TR
><TR
><TD
>04</TD
><TD
>division (/)</TD
></TR
><TR
><TD
>05</TD
><TD
>modulus (%)</TD
></TR
><TR
><TD
>06</TD
><TD
>integer division (\) (same as division)</TD
></TR
><TR
><TD
>07</TD
><TD
>bitwise and</TD
></TR
><TR
><TD
>08</TD
><TD
>bitwise or</TD
></TR
><TR
><TD
>09</TD
><TD
>bitwise xor</TD
></TR
><TR
><TD
>0A</TD
><TD
>boolean and</TD
></TR
><TR
><TD
>0B</TD
><TD
>boolean or</TD
></TR
><TR
><TD
>0C</TD
><TD
>unary negation, 2's complement (-)</TD
></TR
><TR
><TD
>0D</TD
><TD
>unary 1's complement (^)</TD
></TR
></TBODY
></TABLE
></DIV
><P
>An expression is represented in a postfix manner with both operands for
binary operators preceding the operator and the single operand for unary
operators preceding the operator.</P
></DIV
></DIV
></BODY
></HTML
>